The objectification of women in online advertising Essay

The objectification of women in online advertising - Essay Example This "The objectification of women in online advertising" essay outlines how media and ad are using women to attract men audience. Women are being used by men and their bodies are glorified in images in the interest of male population. Adverts fully comply with the standards of female beauty by showing slender and exquisite women who are meant to instantly catch the eye of a male viewer. Call it sexism or objectification, this kind of online advertising is an open threat to women because it reinforces their inferiority to men. It makes these arguments that women can be handled by men like submissive automatons more emphatic because women, in deed, appear to be submissive given the way they are made to strike myriad poses for the male gaze. The purpose of this essay is to explore how subtly media through online advertising seeks to spread the ideology of male dominance in the society by objectification of women. The following discussion will also scrutinize a collection of adverse inf luences executed on women by this manipulative practice. It is suggested that female objectification is actually an iceberg and sexual objectification is only the visible tip of this iceberg (Goh-Mah, 2013). While some see no problem with the media environment in the US which is sexually charged and adamantly defend singularly offensive poses in the name of liberalism, others refuse to believe in this hypocritical charade and question its potential to adversely affect giant masses of women across the globe. Many, acutely distressed by the way women are presented to promote various products and brands, even call for the force of law to prevent the way by which media seeks to further its horrendous interests which have grave social repercussions. The female body parts are made way more pronounced than the product promoted because advertising aims to promote women as sexual objects (Pardun, 2013, p. 116). Not only these images make a point of accentuating different parts of a female body to make them â€Å"fit into an ever narrowing ideal o f female beauty† (Goh-Mah, 2013), they also attempt to add a hint of sarcastic humor to them. In this way, the online advertising producers end up creating such images which not only unreasonably expose a woman to even promote products like beer or a shoe, but also present objectionably weird poses which help men derive satisfaction from them. A kind of media environment which places less emphasis on sex is required to ensure â€Å"better public health for American youth† (Pardun, 2013, p. 116) which is the main target of these advertisements. However, this end cannot be achieved if even ads meant to sell jeans display skinny models in panties whose breasts are magnified by photoshop techniques. It is suggested through creators of such ads to women that by getting their jeans, they too can have bodies â€Å"that any woman would want to see and touch† (Pardun, 2013, p. 116). Such is the ideology upon which modern online advertising is based. There are many hidden aspects of the issue of sexual objectification in online advertisements. This issue started around the 1970s, but is rampant in the present age (Heldman, 2012). These aspects need to be properly explored to dispel the ambiguousness enveloping myriad riddles which have been the source of discomfort for women and feminists for quite long now. Many approaches have been used by scholars over the years to understand and analyze different media through which women are exploited

Macro Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Macro - Assignment Example (Riecher, 2013) Figure 1: Unemployment Rate in Germany1 Germany has been able to deal with structural changes efficiently as its policy doesn’t include laying off workers rather makes the work shorter hours. So when workers cut off their working hours, the government makes up half of the wages of lost working hours. This is a better alternative than being unemployed. Apart from that there a system known as hour bank where workers put extra hours during good times. So these hours could help to compensate in downturn where less hours is worked. Also the unions and management negotiate together on reducing working hours. (Baker, 2013) According to IMF Inflation in Germany by the end of 2012 was 2.137 percent and is expected by IMF that inflation will average to 1.6 percent in 2013. The economy is growing but is not putting an upward pressure in price. This is because the government is able to control inflation because of its tight monetary policy where it has maintained its curre ncy strong too. (Stefan, 2013) Figure 2: Inflation Rate in Germany2 Answer #2 Germany is a part of European Union so it does not have its own money and can’t use its own monetary policy. It follows the policy that is set by the European Central Bank. Current Interest rate maintained by the European Central Bank is only at 0.5 percent. ... So it is important for it to maintain balance in interest rate policy. (Stefan, 2013) Germany fiscal policy shows that’s its revenue as by IMF data has over the years accounting to 1201.38 billion expected in 2013 that is 44.372 percentage of the GDP. Its government expenditure as percentage of GDP amounts to 45.005 percent in 2012 and 44.703 percent expected in 2013. Government’s high share in expenditure is having negative effect on growth rate as it is not giving a room for private investments which has been low around 17.219 percent of GDP in 2012 and expected 17.369 percent in 2013. Low investment means low domestic demand for goods and services which needs to be created by the government. Also the tax rate in Germany on individuals income is progressive, higher the income, higher the tax rate which ranges around 14 to 45 percent on individuals income. Effective corporate tax rate is around 30 to 33 percent. It needs to make sure to reduce taxes in order to encoura ge more growth and investment in the economy. (Randow, 2013) Answer #3 Germany is the power house of industrial base and world’s second largest exporter. One policy Germans adopted was not to borrow money rather they focused to live with their own means as taking debt meant paying back with huge interest costs. They consider taking loan as doing something wrong and feel guilty for it. Germany made its labour market strong in 2003 when it came up with fundamental labour market reform. The government maintained good relations with labour unions in order to easily negotiate on labour wages. At same time workers kept working hours low keeping in mind it was better than to getting unemployed. This helped the economy to flexible in labour

Looking At The Fate Of Romeo And Juliet English Literature Essay

Looking At The Fate Of Romeo And Juliet English Literature Essay Romeo pronounces these words right after having mortally wounded Tybalt, guilty of having just killed Romeos friend Mercutio. In a fit of rage, Romeo takes his sword and attacks Tybalt ferociously, killing him. This is the climax of the play, that will change inevitably the destiny of the two star-crossed lovers. Romeo realizes what he has done, now he knows he has to pay the consequences of his deed, his already dangerous love for Juliet is going to cause a compulsive chain of tragic events, bringing the two lovers to certain death. He defines himself as a puppet of the unpredictable destiny. Even from the opening lines, the audience is informed about the tragedy that is going to affect the two protagonists, establishing fate as a theme at the foreground of the play. The idea that tragic circumstances were decided from birth for these two lovers is suggested: from forth the fatal loins (I.i.5). This line together with, a pair of star-crossed lovers take their life (I.i.6) explains to the audience that destiny was what first brought them together and is what will eventually separate them. The Choruss opening speech is continually echoed throughout the rest of the play by other characters making direct references to fate. As Susan Snyder states: tragedy can be seen as a ritual sacrifice, in which the protagonist is both hero and victim, [], separated from the ordinary, but destined for destruction.  [2]   Even though Romeo defines himself as helpless victim of his fortune, there is much evidence of the important roles that Romeo and Juliet have in shaping and, in many cases, worsening, their destiny. After a careful reading of the play we can state that it is not just a question of destiny. Romeo and Juliet would have been able to save their relationship simply by using more acuteness, composure and resolution. The choice of means confronting Romeo and Juliet is not confined to a single occasion, they are given a series opportunity of choice  [3]  , but unluckily they always seem to choose the wrong way in which to direct their story. Again we find a metaphor relating to the stars, as if Shakespeare has chosen these celestial bodies as symbols for the fatality that lies over the whole play. But here we find the first of Romeos mistakes, he takes a decision without thinking of the consequences: he has read the list of guests that are going to be at the feast and although he is informed about the presence of Capulets, Montagues arch-enemies, he decides to attend in any case. As already mentioned, Romeo kills Tybalt out of rage, even though he knows it makes things all the worse for his current situation with Tybalts cousin, Juliet; but a far more basic instinct, the desire of a man to avoid being thought a coward prevails and Romeo is driven to fight Tybalt. While Romeo lacks composure, Juliets flaw is impetuosity. During the balcony scene, Juliet hurries Romeo into marriage by constantly questioning his love for her and saying things like, If thy purpose marriage, send me word tomorrow (II.i.143-4). The Friars flaw, which in the end had a big effect on this tragedy, is to be too impulsive. He offers to marry Romeo and Juliet, even though he knows there is a huge conflict between the families, probably hoping that the marriage would have solved all the rivalries. Moreover, we must remember that it is the Friar who gives Juliet the potion for suspended animation, which aggravates things even more. Even though the protagonists share many fatal defects, lots of things happen to their misfortune that is not their fault. First of all, Romeo and Juliet shared the unfortunate fate that they were from feuding families, putting their relationship in jeopardy from the beginning. Juliet expresses well this idea in her soliloquy on the balcony: Whats in a name? That which we call a rose, by any other word would smell as sweet [] (II.i.86-87). A second strike of bad luck is the fact that the Capulets, being a typical upper-class traditionalist family, had arranged a marriage between Juliet and Paris, against the will of their daughter. The scene in which Romeo finds out about the feast is another twist of fate. The illiterate servant of Capulets was given the job of telling people about the party. Since he could not read, he was forced to ask two strangers to explain it to him. Those two people could have been anyone, but they just happened to be Romeo and Benvolio. Another ironic fact is that Romeo went to the party because he was madly in love with Rosaline. If Rosaline had been there, and she returned Romeos love, then all the following suffering would never have occurred. Romeo was completely in love with another woman going to the party, which he only found out about in the first place through an adverse stroke of luck. Another example of bad luck is that Romeo never received the letter of Friar Laurence informing him about his and Juliets scheme because of the plague in Mantua, the city where Romeo went to stay after his banishment from Verona. The letter must reach Romeo in time so that he knows of the arran gement between Juliet and the Friar, but the city has been put under quarantine because of a plague. So Romeo never receives the letter and he is left unaware of the plan between the Friar and Juliet: Again we find the concept of fortune. The Friar curses this fate, the unhappy fortune, aware that the story of the two lovers has probably came to an end. Romeo is told by Balthasar that Juliet has died: Her body sleeps in Capels monument, and her immortal part with angels lives (V.i.18-19). These events are the last straw and they will lead to the demise of both characters. Obviously the fate is closely related to the concept of time. Timing, in fact, played the largest role in deciding if they would live or die. Many scholars have defined it as the lovers enemy, which retards his pace when the lovers are separated and accelerates it when they are together:  [4]   O lamentable day! O woeful time! (IV.iv.57) In the balcony scene Juliet hurries because the Nurse is calling her; if Romeo had arrived a few minutes later at the tomb, the tragedy would not have happened; moreover, if the wedding of Juliet and Paris had not been brought forward from Thursday to Wednesday the letter would have had more time to reach Romeo in Mantua; if the Friar had entered the tomb earlier he could have explained the situation to Romeo and no harm would have happened to anyone. These are only a few examples of the negative and mysterious force that seems to control the happenings. We can definitely say that Romeo and Juliet is a crossing of fortuitous events, coincidences and personal responsibilities, all masterfully managed by fate and time. The love story did not have to begin, the two lovers were not meant to meet each other, son and daughter of rival families. They both knew this, but they could not accept it, their love was bigger than anything else. What if it was the temptation of the forbidden which increased their love? Two teenagers, two rebels living in a sexist society made of wedding vows and past rivalry. They preferred to risk, but risking is a matter of fate, a cruel fate which brought them to a certain death. As said by Cassius in Shakespeares Julius Caesar  [5]  , The fault, [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦], is not in our stars but in ourselves (I.ii-139-40).

What Anti-Individualists Cannot Know A Priori :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays

What Anti-Individualists Cannot Know A Priori ABSTRACT: The attempt to hold both anti-individualism and privileged self-knowledge may have the absurd consequence that someone could know a priori propositions that are knowable only empirically. This would be so if such an attempt entailed that one could know a priori both the contents of one’s own thoughts and the anti-individualistic entailments from those thought-contents to the world. For then one could also come to know a priori (by simple deduction) the empirical conditions entailed by one’s thoughts. But I argue that there is no construal of a priori knowledge that could be used to raise an incompatibility problem of this sort. First, I suggest that the incompatibilist a priori must be a stipulative one, since in none of the main philosophical traditions does knowledge of the contents of one’s thoughts count as a priori. Then, I show that under various possible construals of a priori, the incompatibilist argument would be invalid: either a fallacy of eq uivocation or an argument without a plausible closure principle guaranteeing transmission of epistemic status from premises to conclusion. Finally, I maintain that the only possible construal of the property of being knowable a priori that avoids invalidity is one that fails to generate the intended reductio. I Compatibilism, or the attempt to hold both Burgean anti-individualism and common intuitions about privileged self-knowledge, appears to entail that a person (say, Oscar) could come to know a priori the premises of arguments of this sort: B 1. If I am now thinking that water is wet, then water exists. 2. I am now thinking that water is wet. Therefore, 3. Water exists. Naturally, from such premises Oscar could come to know a priori that water exists (i.e., by simple deduction) — yet nobody can know that a priori! Some take this to be a reductio of compatibilism (call them "incompatibilists"). But I shall suggest how anti-individualists could retain common intuitions about self-knowledge, without fearing that their views would entail unacceptable claims about the epistemic status of empirical propositions. First I shall ask why incompatibilists hold that, given both anti-individualism and privileged self-knowledge, each premise of inferences such as (B) are knowable a priori. I shall then argue that there is no plausible construal of "a priori" that could be used to generate the alleged reductio. II First, consider (B)'s second premise: could Oscar come to know a priori the proposition that he is thinking that water is wet, according to the criteria for "a priori" knowledge in the main philosophical traditions that invoke knowledge of this sort?

In Defense of Pit Bulls

Kylie Colyer In Defense of Pit bulls Pit bulls are among the most misunderstood and maligned (badmouthed) breed of dogs. Over the years, the media has been portraying them in a negative light. This kind of portrayal has largely been due to the misconceptions and myths associated with pit bulls. Prior to this negative depiction of pit bulls, they were considered the â€Å"perfect nanny dog† by children (Holland). They were seen as friendly in nature, stable, loyal as well as non-aggressive to children and adults. However, this has since changed, especially after 1990s when the media inappropriately started portraying pit bulls as bloodthirsty monsters that are more dangerous and harmful compared to other dog breeds (Coile). As a result of this false portrayal, parents and children have become increasingly afraid of them. They recoil in horror upon spotting one of them. Some pull their children closer with the intention of protecting them from what they assume are prowling werewolves (Lam). As this paper will demonstrate, this should not be the case. It will argue in defense of pit bulls by showing that they are still the loyal, stable, non-aggressive and friendly breeds of dog. Those against pit bulls and portraying them in bad light argue that they have features that make them inherently dangerous and vicious. For example, some people state that pit bull breeds have locking jaws. They also say that they are overly aggressive towards human beings. It is also their view that pit bulls are dangerous to adopt, especially if one has no known history and parentage from a shelter or rescue is not known (Dickey). There is also a widespread myth that pit bulls are preferred by people with irresponsible breeding habits; effectively stating that pit bulls attract the most irresponsible and worst form of dog owners (Marrs). All these perceptions and myths have only served to bad-mouth pit bulls and to make them unattractive to the majority of people in our society. They have also led to high rates of abandonment, torture and abuse of this breed of dogs compared to any other breeds (Landau). The negative portrayal of pit bulls is also as a result of some people using them as fighting dogs. They gained this bad reputation as early as 1066 AD during the England's Norman Conquest when they would be used as â€Å"bullenbeissers†, a term which means â€Å"bull biter† (Coile). During this time, they were trained to latch onto the nose of bulls and also how not to let go of an animal until it is subdued. The use of pit bulls was considered as the only way through which human beings would regain control after bulls have become agitated. Following the ban of bull-baiting in the 19th century, the popularity of dog fighting increased, especially among those who were involved in the quasi-illegal activities and underground businesses in the United Kingdom (Landau). The British immigrants to the United States brought this game into the country, and they too utilized pit bulls for this purpose. It is for this reason that pit bulls have continued bad reputation over the years. However, what is rarely mentioned is the fact that they were used as fighting dogs due to their extreme loyalty to their human owners (Lam). While the perceptions and myths above about pit bulls may appear to be valid, facts and scientific evidence provide otherwise. According to a study conducted by the American Veterinary Medicine Association, there is no evidence showing that pit bulls are disproportionately dangerous (Holland). It has also been established that this breed of dog does not have locking jaws; they do not have special enzymes or mechanism allowing them to lock jaws. A comparison of their skulls to that of other breeds of dogs shows that they share general bone structure and have similar characteristics. It is their determination that when biting down on something and not easily releasing makes them appear like they have locking jaws (Coile). The misconception that pit bulls are inherently vicious can also be refuted using facts. It should first be noted that this myth is a stereotype that is simply aimed at the entire breed (Landau). When evaluated on own merit rather than the breed, one can easily find out that a pit bull is truly a good dog that is inherently friendly to humans and other dogs. The argument that pit bulls are aggressive towards humans and other dogs is unfounded (Marrs). Perhaps the way pit bulls are raised or trained make them an aggressive breed.The myths and misconceptions associated with pit bulls have created an impression that their adoption is dangerous, especially if they have unknown parentage and history. This myth is inappropriate because it fails to acknowledge that, just like humans, each dog ought to be judged by their own behavior and personality (Marrs). It also fails to recognize that pit bulls that are portraying negative behaviors and personalities are not doing so because of their nature but because of other factors. These factors include having been horribly neglected and abused in the past or having been forced to fight (Landau). Pit bulls that have been rescued and raised properly tend to show proper temperament and behavior towards human beings. This explanation helps to address the other false portrayal about pit bulls that adopting a pit bull puppy is better than an adult one. Regardless of whether someone adopts a puppy or an adult one, the most important thing is how one treats a pit bull. One should nurture it in such a manner that enables it to develop desirable and positive traits (Dickey). From the above discussion, it is evident that pit bulls are loyal, stable, non-aggressive and friendly breeds of dogs. As has been noted, the myths and misconceptions that have been kept alive over the years regarding pit bulls and which have portrayed them in bad light are unfounded. There is no scientific evidence to show that those myths are actually natural to pit bulls. In fact, some of the reasons why pit bulls gained bad reputation such as being used as fighting dogs are anchored on their positive trait of being loyal to human owners. Therefore, these are the traits that should be portrayed and not some myths about them, It is also clear that humans have a role in making sure that pit bulls are being treated like other breeds of dogs so that they develop traits and personalities that are desirable and which can help them to sustain their loyal, stable, non-aggressive and friendly nature. Works CitedCoile, D C. Pit Bulls for Dummies. New York, NY: Hungry Minds, 2011.Dickey, Bronwen. Pit Bull: The Battle Over an American Icon. NY: A.A. Knopf, 2016.Holland, Joshua. In Defense of the Pit Bull.† 02 May, 2013, Salon TV. https://www.salon.com/2013/02/05/in_defense_of_the_pitbull_partner/ Accessed 23 Mar, 2018.Lam, Stephanie. Pit Bulls. Hauppage, N.Y: Barron's, 2012. Landau, Elaine. Pit Bulls Are the Best!Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Co, 2011.Marrs, Megan. â€Å"In Defense of Pit Bulls: Monsters or Misunderstood [Infographic].† 2018, Lifehack. ; https://www.lifehack.org/302240/defense-pit-bulls-monsters-misunderstood-infographic; Accessed 23 Mar, 2018.

Are Mobile Phones a Health Risk? Essay

Abstract In this report I aim to determine whether or not mobile phones pose a risk to our health. I will explain how mobile phone electromagnetic radiation can be perceived as dangerous, with reference to the EM spectrum. I will cite scientific sources of evidence which support both sides of the dispute, and will come to a reasoned conclusion as to how likely it is that mobile phones are a health risk. I will also evaluate the credibility of the sources used to support my conclusions, and list all the sources used throughout in a detailed bibliography. Introduction Mobile phones are becoming increasingly popular in today’s world; with around 80 million handsets in Britain, there are now more mobiles than people [1]. They’ve become an essential part of our existence, in business, in our daily lives and in keeping in touch with our loved ones – however, there is growing concern that this technology is causing serious health problems throughout the population, such as lasting brain damage and cancer. The Media consistently tends to portray mobile phones negatively, fuelling the public’s fears and misgivings: this study aims to determine from the scientific evidence whether or not mobile phones present a risk to our health. Main Points How might Mobile Phones be Hazardous to our Health? After studying numerous publications, I have found that if there are concerns about how mobile phones may pose a risk to the health of their users, they can be divided into two categories: The first is Electromagnetic Radiation from the phone damaging human cells and cause cancers and tumours. The second is that the EM radiation from the handset creates a heating effect. What is EM Radiation? EM radiation is something we are exposed to all the time: TVs, radios, satellite communications, etc all use EM waves to transmit information. Light is a form of EM radiation, as are the UV rays from the sun. The danger is that EM waves with a high frequency (UV rays, X-rays and gamma rays) are forms of ionizing radiation. This means that they have enough energy to damage cells and their DNA by stripping electrons from, or in very high energy radiation, even break apart the nucleus of atoms [2] and as such can cause genetic malfunctions which can lead to cancers. What are the Possible Dangers of Mobile Phone EM Radiation? Cancer-Inducing Effects of Radiation Mobile phones use microwaves in order to transmit their information, and not UV, X or gamma rays. Microwaves are not ionizing, and so are not as dangerous as the higher frequency EM waves. However, mobile phones are still relatively new technology, and the effects of prolonged exposure to non-ionizing radiation are still unknown, as is whether prolonged exposure to the microwaves of a mobile phone handset, especially so close to the brain, will cause any serious health damage. The Heating Effect of Radiation When EM radiation reaches an object, the photons’ energy causes the molecules of the surface they collide with to vibrate, creating thermal energy and warming the surface they collide with slightly. We use this everyday with infrared (another EM radiation) heaters etc. The concern here is that as handsets are held so close to the brain, this heating effect could warm the sensitive brain tissues, causing permanent damage. This, as well as the concerns about the possibly cancer-inducing radiation of handsets, is thought to be more of a risk in children, who have thinner skulls and a still-developing nervous system [4]. Physiological Effects of EM Radiation Effects of Low-Frequency (Non-Ionizing) EM Radiation In General It is important to remember that Mobile Phones utilise Microwave radiation, a non-ionizing form of radiation, so in my research I have also looked at the effects of low-frequency EM radiation in general; not just in the application of mobile phone technology. I have frequently found that concern for children specifically is raised as a common fear, and in the course of my research discovered an interesting study published by the Institute of Physics Publishing, which explored the effects of low-frequency electric and magnetic fields (i.e. those caused by EM radiation) on the foetus. The study concluded that the foetus was not exposed to electric and magnetic fields, though these fields were confirmed within the mother’s spinal chord. [5] Cancers and Brain Tumours due to Mobile Phone Radiation? The vast majority of recent publications agree that current evidence suggests that mobile phones (both the handsets and broadcasting/receiving masts) do not cause cancers or brain tumours – two very recent sources, one a joint-statement from the Nordic Radiation Safety Authorities, the other a Mobile Phone Fact-Sheet published by the Heath Physics Society, both agree that there is no evidence for mobile phones causing adverse health effects [6] [7]. However, the joint-statement goes on to acknowledge that the technology which uses radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation is still relatively new – only two decades old – and so active research must continue into finding out whether or not there are health dangers presented by radiofrequency radiation – this is a view agreed upon by the World Health Organization (WHO), which state the available evidence does not point towards any increased health risks attributable to mobile phone exposure, though further res earch and risk analysis should continue. [8] This said, the argument for mobile phones causing brain tumours still persists: the WHO also mentions that recent studies seem to suggest an increased risk of acoustic neuroma and certain brain tumours in users of analogue mobile phones for a time period greater than 10 years – A point corroborated by a 14 months study conducted by Dr Vini Gautam Khurana. Khurana’s study concludes that â€Å"Malignant brain tumours may take several years to develop, and the incidence of malignant brain tumours is increasing.† This suggests that mobile phones may have been causing brain tumours for several years previously, but due to the development period of these tumours, the effects would only just be becoming recognizable – and indeed the number of tumours is increasing. Khurana also goes on to address the point introduced by the WHO, that â€Å"There is a growing and statistically significant body of evidence reporting that brain tumours such as vestibular Schwannoma (acoustic neuroma) and astrocytoma are associated with â€Å"heavy† and â€Å"prolonged† mobile phone use, particularly on the same side as the â€Å"preferred ear† for telephony.† [9] In addition to Dr Khurana’s study, there are many older sources of information conjecturing about the issue – but most have been either outdated or discredited since their publication. Finally, it is worth noting that the International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), one of the main bodies who set international non-ionising radiation safety limits, set these limits based only on the thermal effects (i.e. tissue heating) of mobile phone radiation [10], due to the fact that this is the only scientifically substantiated risk to humans from non-ionising radiation in large quantities – possible risks of cancer-inducement by the low-frequency radiation are not taken into account due to a lack of internationally accepted proof. Discussion After studying the scientific publications and evidence above, I am of the opinion that the EM radiation of mobile phones cannot cause brain tumours or cancer because of the effects of ionizing radiation, as the microwaves emitted by mobile phones are simply too low-frequency to have the energy required; however, I do agree with the views of the NRSA [6] and the WHO [8], that as the utilisation of radiofrequency EM radiation is still a relatively new technology, it cannot fully be known at present whether or not it can still pose a health risk in the form of causing tumours by some other factor, and so research must continue – until conclusive evidence is found, I believe we should adopt a precautionary approach, minimising our use of mobile phones for extended periods of time. I think that Dr Khurana [9] raises a very interesting point about the period of time needed for tumours to develop and their increasing incidence. This seems to me a plausible explanation for the current increases in tumour incidence; however, I believe it important to acknowledge that the apparent correlation between mobile phone usage and brain tumour incidence does not necessarily represent a causal link: the increase in tumour incidence comes at a time when improvements in diagnostic techniques are constantly being made, and also at a time when the world’s population is increasing dramatically, and so the incidence of tumours could be expected to likewise rise. Conclusion After considering the scientific evidence on both sides of the dispute, Are mobile phones a Health Risk? I personally have come to the conclusion that mobile phones are unlikely to cause brain tumours or cancers because of the EM radiation emitted by either the handsets or their base stations. I believe this because, firstly, mobile phones use microwave radiation to transmit data, and microwave radiation does not have enough energy to be ionizing – it is my opinion that the media has demonised radiation in all forms by highlighting the dangers of ionizing radiation (e.g. Gamma rays – which have been proven to cause cancers) and from this the fears about mobile phone EM radiation have spawned. Secondly, I believe this as the overwhelming majority of recent studies have not found concrete evidence to suggest that mobile phones can cause tumours. As to the danger of the heating effect EM radiation from mobile phones warming sensitive brain tissues and causing lasting damage, I believe that this is much more likely to present a potential health risk of mobile phones as, firstly, the scientific theory behind it seems sound to me – it is an established fact that colliding photons from EM waves imparts to the molecules of the surface collided with energy, which causes said molecules to vibrate and heat up, and secondly, in my opinion the fact that the ICRINP sets the international radiation safety levels based solely on this heating effect adds great weight to the plausibility of the argument that the heating effect of mobile phones could pose a health risk (although the EM emissions of mobile phones are well below these levels). Overall therefore, I believe that there is some possibility that prolonged use of mobile phones (and so prolonged exposure to the heating effect of the EM radiation) could amount to a potential health risk and could cause lasting brain damage. I agree with the recommendation of the WHO to adopt a precautionary approach to mobile phone use; to only use them for extended periods of time when absolutely necessary. Evaluation of Credibility of References * [6] The Joint-statement from the NRSA – one of the most recent sources available, meaning that its content is highly likely to be up-to-date. The combined expertise of the NRSA greatly increases the sources reliability, as does the reputation of providing accurate and honest information that these authorities have to uphold. However, it could be argued that some vested interest may exist as mobile phone giants Nokia and Erikson are based in Finland and Sweden respectively, and so the authorities may have been trying to protect their countries’ economies in the downturn by presenting mobile phones in a positive light. * [7] The HPS Mobile Phones Fact-sheet – this factsheet is again a very recent source, and again the HPS has a lot of expertise in matters of health-related physics; both of these factors increase the source’s credibility considerably. * [8] The WHO – although this source is quite old, which gives scope for it being outdated, the WHO is a very reputable source looked to internationally for recommendations for policy etc. due to its wealth of expertise and independence. These three factors all increase its credibility, and in my view outweigh the age of the source (and in any case, the WHO would have updated its information if required). * [9] Dr Khurana PhD, FRACS’s study – Dr Khurana is a highly qualified individual with great expertise in the field, and furthermore included in his study a period of over 14 months of his own research, meaning that he had a great ability to see the effects of radiation on health, both of which strengthen the source’s credibility. Bibliography of References * [1] Number of Mobile Phones in the UK statistic from: The Daily Mail – http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-1224827/As-new-evidence-links-mobile-phones-greater-risk-tumours-using-cost-child-life.html Last Updated: 3/11/09 * [2]The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency – http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/understand/ionize_nonionize.html Last Updated: 22/10/09 * [3] Image of EM spectrum from: The Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency – http://www.arpansa.gov.au/mobilephones/mobiles1.cfm#1 * [4] Prof Kjell Mild, of Orbero University, Sweden – http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1565477/Mobile-phone-cancer-risk-higher-for-children.html Published: 8/10/07 * [5] The Institute of Physics Publishing – http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/0031-9155/52/4/001/pmb7_4_001.pdf?request-id=2266623f-5097-4aa8-a71d-fa1e83b6a0fc Published: 17/1/07 * [6] Joint-statement from the NRSA – http://www.stuk.fi/stuk/tiedotteet/fi_FI/news_578/_files/82468261251448918/default/Nordic_Statement-EMF161109.pdf Published 19/11/09 * [7] HPS Mobile Phones Fact-Sheet – http://hps.org/documents/mobiletelephonefactsheet.pdf Adopted: September 2009 * [8] WHO – http://www.euro.who.int/HEN/Syntheses/MobilePhones/20061017_10 Last Updated 13/11/06 * [9] Dr Vini Khurana’s study – http://www.brain-surgery.us/mobph.pdf Copyrighted to G.Khurana 2008 * [10] The Human Ecological Social Economical Project – http://www.hese-project.org/hese-uk/en/niemr/icnirp.php Accessed 13/12/09 * [11] Image of Ionizing Radiation from: radiation, Science and Health inc. – http://www.radscihealth.org/RSH/docs/Pollycove98_Ottawa.html